Frames of Mind

There is persuasive evidence for the existence of several relatively autonomous human intellectual competences, abbreviated hereafter as "human intelligences."

Multiple intelligences theory. Howard Gardner proposes that human intelligence is not a single, general capacity, but rather a set of distinct intellectual competences. This theory challenges the traditional view of intelligence as measured by IQ tests, which primarily focus on linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. Gardner identifies eight types of intelligence: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and two forms of personal intelligence (intrapersonal and interpersonal).

Criteria for intelligence. To qualify as an intelligence, a capacity must meet several criteria:

• Potential isolation by brain damage

• Existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals

• An identifiable core operation or set of operations

• A distinctive developmental history

• An evolutionary history and plausibility

• Support from experimental psychological tasks

• Support from psychometric findings

• Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

The poet must be superlatively sensitive to the shades of meanings of a word; indeed, rather than shaving off connotations, he must try to preserve as many of the sought-after meanings as possible.

Language mastery. Linguistic intelligence involves a deep understanding and skillful use of language in its various forms. This intelligence is exemplified by poets, writers, orators, and linguists. It encompasses abilities such as:

• Sensitivity to the meaning of words (semantics)

• Appreciation of the order and structure of language (syntax)

• Understanding of the sound and rhythm of language (phonology)

• Awareness of the different uses and functions of language (pragmatics)

Development and application. Linguistic intelligence begins to develop in early childhood with babbling and first words, progressing to complex language use in adulthood. It is crucial for effective communication, persuasion, memorization, explanation, and self-expression. In education and professional settings, linguistic intelligence is often highly valued and can be seen in skills such as storytelling, debating, and writing.

Music is controlled movement of sound in time. . . . It is made by humans who want it, enjoy it, and even love it.

Musical cognition. Musical intelligence involves the capacity to perceive, create, and understand musical patterns. It encompasses skills such as:

• Recognizing pitch, rhythm, and timbre

• Composing and performing music

• Appreciating musical structure and emotion

Universal and unique. While musical ability is often considered a specialized talent, Gardner argues that it is a distinct form of intelligence with its own developmental trajectory and neural basis. Musical intelligence can be observed in various cultures and has been linked to mathematical and spatial abilities. Prodigies and savants in music demonstrate the potential for this intelligence to develop independently of other cognitive abilities.

We cannot prove the statement which is arrived at by substituting for the variable in the statement form, "we cannot prove the statement which is arrived at by substituting in the statement form the name of the statement form in question," the name of the statement form in question.

Abstract reasoning. Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the capacity for abstract thought, numerical reasoning, and scientific inquiry. This intelligence is characterized by:

• Pattern recognition and analysis

• Logical reasoning and problem-solving

• Understanding of mathematical concepts and operations

• Scientific thinking and hypothesis testing

Scientific and mathematical prowess. This intelligence is crucial in fields such as mathematics, physics, computer science, and engineering. It develops from concrete experiences with objects in early childhood to abstract reasoning in adolescence and adulthood. Logical-mathematical intelligence is often associated with the concept of "general intelligence" and is heavily emphasized in traditional educational systems.

Central to spatial intelligence are the capacities to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations and modifications upon one's initial perceptions, and to be able to re-create aspects of one's visual experience, even in the absence of relevant physical stimuli.

Visual-spatial processing. Spatial intelligence involves the ability to perceive, manipulate, and transform visual and spatial information. Key components include:

• Mental rotation and transformation of objects

• Navigation and spatial orientation

• Visual arts and design

• Understanding of spatial relationships

Applications and development. This intelligence is crucial for professions such as architecture, engineering, surgery, and visual arts. It develops from basic spatial awareness in infancy to complex spatial reasoning in adulthood. Interestingly, spatial intelligence can develop even in individuals who are blind, demonstrating that it is not solely dependent on visual input.

Bodily use can itself be differentiated into a variety of forms. Like Marcel Marceau, one may use one's whole body to represent a certain kind of activity—for example, running or falling—chiefly for expressive ends.

Physical prowess and control. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves the ability to control one's body movements and handle objects skillfully. It encompasses:

• Fine motor skills (e.g., surgery, craftsmanship)

• Gross motor skills (e.g., dance, athletics)

• Body awareness and coordination

• Physical expression and mimicry

Diverse applications. This intelligence is evident in athletes, dancers, actors, and craftspeople. It develops from basic motor skills in infancy to complex physical abilities in adulthood. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence challenges the traditional separation of mental and physical activities, highlighting the cognitive aspects of physical performance and the embodied nature of certain forms of thinking.

The core capacity at work here is access to one's own feeling life—one's range of affects or emotions: the capacity instantly to effect discriminations among these feelings and, eventually, to label them, to enmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw upon them as a means of understanding and guiding one's behavior.

Intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence. Gardner identifies two forms of personal intelligence:

1. Intrapersonal intelligence: Understanding oneself, one's emotions, motivations, and inner experiences

2. Interpersonal intelligence: Understanding others, their emotions, motivations, and behavior

Social and emotional competence. These intelligences are crucial for:

• Self-awareness and self-regulation

• Empathy and social skills

• Leadership and effective communication

• Psychological insight and counseling abilities

Personal intelligences develop from basic emotional recognition in infancy to complex understanding of self and others in adulthood. They are heavily influenced by cultural context and play a significant role in social functioning and personal well-being.

We find, from recent work in neurology, increasingly persuasive evidence for functional units in the nervous systems. There are units subserving microscopic abilities in the individual columns of the sensory or frontal areas; and there are much larger units, visible to inspection, that serve more complex and molar human functions, like linguistic or spatial processing.

Neurological foundations. Each intelligence has its own developmental trajectory and is associated with specific neural structures and processes. For example:

• Linguistic intelligence is primarily associated with the left hemisphere, particularly Broca's and Wernicke's areas

• Musical intelligence involves both hemispheres but shows right-hemisphere dominance for pitch perception

• Spatial intelligence is primarily associated with the right hemisphere, particularly the parietal regions

Developmental patterns. The intelligences develop at different rates and may have critical periods for optimal development. For instance:

• Linguistic intelligence develops rapidly in early childhood

• Logical-mathematical intelligence shows significant development during adolescence

• Personal intelligences continue to develop throughout adulthood

Understanding these unique trajectories and neural bases can inform educational practices and interventions for individuals with specific strengths or challenges in different intelligences.

To be sure, certain aspects of language, and certainly many aspects of cognition and symbol use, emerge as a unique human function. It allows us to formulate theories and beliefs about other individuals and to develop a propositional account of our own person, which I have elsewhere dubbed a "metaphor of the self."

Cultural influence. The expression and valuation of different intelligences vary significantly across cultures. For example:

• Western cultures often prioritize linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences

• Some non-Western cultures place greater emphasis on personal intelligences or bodily-kinesthetic skills

• Certain intelligences may be more or less developed based on cultural practices and environmental demands

Cultural symbols and practices. Each culture provides unique symbol systems and practices that shape the development and expression of intelligences. These include:

• Language and writing systems

• Mathematical and scientific traditions

• Artistic and musical practices

• Social norms and interpersonal expectations

Understanding the cultural context of intelligence can help avoid ethnocentric biases in assessment and education, and promote a more inclusive understanding of human cognitive diversity.

An educator convinced of the relevance of MI theory should individualize and pluralize. By individualizing, I mean that the educator should know as much as possible about the intelligences profile of each student for whom he has responsibility; and, to the extent possible, the educator should teach and assess in ways that bring out that child's capacities.

Educational implications. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has significant implications for education:

• Recognizing and valuing diverse forms of intelligence

• Tailoring instruction to individual students' intelligence profiles

• Providing multiple entry points to learning content

• Assessing learning through diverse methods that tap into different intelligences

Practical applications. Educators can implement MI theory by:

• Offering a variety of learning activities that engage different intelligences

• Allowing students to demonstrate understanding through multiple modalities

• Creating interdisciplinary curricula that integrate various intelligences

• Developing assessment tools that recognize and measure diverse intellectual strengths

By embracing multiple intelligences in education, we can foster more inclusive, engaging, and effective learning environments that prepare students for success in a complex, multifaceted world.