Life Ascending

It's as if they were waiting to be bidden into existence.

From soup to vents. The origin of life has long puzzled scientists, with the "primordial soup" theory dominating for decades. However, recent evidence points to deep-sea alkaline hydrothermal vents as a more likely birthplace of life. These vents provide:

• Concentrated organic molecules

• Energy gradients

• Natural electrochemical reactors

• Porous structures for protocells

Chemical evolution. In these vents, simple molecules could have combined to form more complex ones, eventually leading to self-replicating systems. The key steps in this process likely included:

• Formation of RNA-like molecules

• Development of primitive metabolic cycles

• Emergence of lipid membranes

• Evolution of protein synthesis

Suddenly the origin of life looked easy.

The double helix. DNA's structure, discovered by Watson and Crick in 1953, revolutionized our understanding of life. Its double-helical structure allows for:

• Faithful replication

• Storage of genetic information

• Transmission of traits to offspring

The genetic code. The DNA code is nearly universal across all life forms, suggesting a common origin. Key features include:

• Four-letter alphabet (A, T, G, C)

• Three-letter codons specifying amino acids

• Redundancy in the code, providing robustness

• Ability to evolve and adapt through mutations

The universality of the genetic code provides strong evidence for the common ancestry of all life on Earth.

Nature, red in tooth and claw

Solar-powered life. Photosynthesis, the process by which plants and some bacteria convert sunlight into chemical energy, transformed Earth's atmosphere and paved the way for complex life. Key aspects include:

• Splitting of water molecules to produce oxygen

• Fixation of carbon dioxide into organic compounds

• Evolution of specialized light-capturing pigments (e.g., chlorophyll)

Oxygen revolution. The oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms dramatically changed Earth's environment:

• Oxygenation of the atmosphere

• Formation of the ozone layer

• Enabling the evolution of aerobic respiration

• Setting the stage for the evolution of complex multicellular life

If there ever were eukaryotes lacking the ability to move around, exerting forces with a dynamic cytoskeleton and motor proteins, then they are no longer to be found: they died out many aeons ago, along with all their progeny.

Symbiotic revolution. The eukaryotic cell, with its complex internal structures, likely arose from a symbiotic relationship between simpler prokaryotic cells. This "endosymbiotic theory" proposes that:

• Mitochondria evolved from engulfed bacteria

• Chloroplasts in plants originated from cyanobacteria

• The nucleus may have evolved to protect genetic material

Cellular complexity. Eukaryotic cells possess several features that distinguish them from prokaryotes:

• Membrane-bound organelles

• Linear chromosomes

• Sexual reproduction

• Ability to form multicellular organisms

These innovations allowed for the evolution of diverse and complex life forms, including plants, animals, and fungi.

Sex is the most peculiar randomiser of successful genes known.

Genetic recombination. Sexual reproduction, despite its costs, provides significant evolutionary advantages:

• Increased genetic diversity

• Faster adaptation to environmental changes

• Protection against harmful mutations

Evolutionary puzzle. The prevalence of sex in nature is surprising given its apparent disadvantages:

• Two-fold cost of sex (only half of genes passed on)

• Time and energy spent finding mates

• Risk of sexually transmitted diseases

Yet, the benefits of genetic recombination seem to outweigh these costs in most cases, leading to the dominance of sexual reproduction in complex organisms.

Motility has indeed transformed life on earth in ways that are not immediately apparent, from the complexity of ecosystems to the pace and direction of evolution among plants.

Evolutionary driver. The ability to move actively has profoundly impacted the evolution of life:

• Enabled new feeding strategies (e.g., predation)

• Allowed colonization of new habitats

• Increased complexity of ecosystems

• Accelerated evolutionary arms races

Muscular innovation. The evolution of muscles, powered by molecular motors like myosin and actin, enabled:

• Efficient locomotion

• Manipulation of the environment

• Complex behaviors and interactions

• Development of specialized organs (e.g., hearts)

Movement has been a key factor in shaping the diversity and complexity of life on Earth, from microscopic organisms to large animals.

95 per cent of all animal species have eyes: the handful of phyla that did invent eyes utterly dominates animal life today.

Visual revolution. The evolution of eyes has been a major driver of animal diversity and complexity:

• Enabled more sophisticated predator-prey interactions

• Allowed for complex behaviors and communication

• Drove the evolution of camouflage and warning coloration

From simple to complex. Eyes have evolved multiple times independently, but all share common principles:

• Light-sensitive proteins (opsins)

• Focusing mechanisms (lenses, pinholes)

• Neural processing of visual information

The development of eyes may have been a key factor in the Cambrian explosion, leading to a rapid diversification of animal forms and behaviors.

Mammals are the original eco-hooligans.

Metabolic innovation. The evolution of endothermy (warm-bloodedness) in mammals and birds provided several advantages:

• Constant body temperature independent of environment

• Increased stamina and activity levels

• Ability to inhabit a wider range of environments

Energetic trade-offs. Maintaining a high body temperature comes with costs:

• Increased energy requirements

• Need for frequent feeding

• Potential for overheating

Despite these costs, endothermy has proven to be a successful strategy, enabling mammals and birds to dominate many ecological niches.

Feelings feel real because they have real meaning, meaning that has been acquired in the crucible of selection, meaning that comes from real life, real death.

Evolutionary perspective. Consciousness, often seen as uniquely human, likely has deep evolutionary roots:

• Primordial emotions (e.g., hunger, fear) in simple animals

• Gradual development of self-awareness

• Emergence of complex cognitive abilities

Neural basis. Modern neuroscience is uncovering the physical underpinnings of consciousness:

• Specific brain regions associated with conscious experiences

• Importance of neural synchronization and integration

• Role of emotions and feelings in shaping conscious experience

While the "hard problem" of consciousness remains unsolved, evolutionary and neurobiological approaches are providing new insights into the nature of subjective experience.

Death evolved. Ageing evolved. They evolved for pragmatic reasons.

Evolutionary necessity. Death and aging are not simply flaws in living systems but evolved traits with important functions:

• Allowing for generational turnover

• Enabling faster adaptation to changing environments

• Balancing resource allocation between reproduction and maintenance

Cellular mechanisms. The biology of aging involves several key processes:

• Accumulation of cellular damage

• Telomere shortening

• Mitochondrial dysfunction

• Epigenetic changes

Understanding these mechanisms may lead to interventions that can extend healthspan, if not lifespan, potentially alleviating many age-related diseases simultaneously.