Make It Stick

Empirical research into how we learn and remember shows that much of what we take for gospel about how to learn turns out to be largely wasted effort.

Common misconceptions. Many people believe that rereading material, cramming before exams, and focusing on one topic at a time are effective learning strategies. However, research shows these methods are often ineffective for long-term retention and understanding.

Counterintuitive strategies. The most effective learning techniques are often not intuitive:

• Retrieval practice (self-testing)

• Spaced repetition

• Interleaving different topics

• Introducing desirable difficulties

Benefits of evidence-based techniques. These strategies lead to:

• Deeper understanding

• Better long-term retention

• Improved ability to apply knowledge in new contexts

• Enhanced problem-solving skills

Repeated effortful recall or practice helps integrate learning into mental models, in which a set of interrelated ideas or a sequence of motor skills are fused into a meaningful whole that can be adapted and applied in later settings.

Testing effect. Actively recalling information through self-quizzing or practice tests strengthens memory more effectively than passive rereading. This phenomenon is known as the "testing effect" or "retrieval practice effect."

How it works:

• Retrieval reinforces neural pathways

• Identifies gaps in knowledge

• Improves long-term retention

• Enhances ability to apply information in new contexts

Practical applications:

• Use flashcards

• Take practice tests

• Explain concepts to others

• Write summaries from memory

When practice conditions are varied or retrieval is interleaved with the practice of other material, we increase our abilities of discrimination and induction and the versatility with which we can apply the learning in new settings at a later date.

Spacing effect. Distributing practice sessions over time leads to better long-term retention than massed practice (cramming). This allows time for consolidation and strengthens memory traces.

Interleaving. Mixing different topics or types of problems during practice sessions improves:

• Ability to discriminate between concepts

• Transfer of knowledge to new situations

• Overall understanding of relationships between ideas

Examples:

• Alternating between different types of math problems

• Practicing various sports skills in a mixed order

• Studying related but distinct historical periods in one session

Difficulties that you can overcome with greater cognitive effort will more than repay you in the depth and durability of your learning.

Desirable difficulties. Introducing challenges during learning can lead to stronger, more durable memories and deeper understanding. These difficulties require more effort but result in better long-term outcomes.

Types of desirable difficulties:

• Generation (attempting to solve problems before being taught the solution)

• Reflection (analyzing and elaborating on learned material)

• Calibration (aligning judgments of knowledge with objective feedback)

Neuroplasticity. Effortful learning leads to physical changes in the brain, creating new neural connections and strengthening existing ones. This process enhances cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills over time.

Fluency with a text has two strikes against it: it is a misleading indicator of what you have learned, and it creates the false impression that you will remember the material.

Metacognition. Accurately assessing what you know and don't know is crucial for effective learning. Many people overestimate their understanding due to illusions of knowing.

Common illusions:

• Familiarity with material mistaken for mastery

• Confusing ease of processing with depth of understanding

• Hindsight bias (feeling that you "knew it all along")

Strategies to combat illusions:

• Regular self-testing

• Seeking objective feedback

• Explaining concepts to others

• Applying knowledge in new contexts

We are not persuaded that you learn better when the manner of instruction fits those preferences. Yet there are other kinds of differences in how people learn that do matter.

Learning styles myth. Despite popularity, there's little scientific evidence supporting the idea that matching instruction to preferred learning styles (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic) improves learning outcomes.

What matters more:

• Using evidence-based learning strategies

• Developing metacognitive skills

• Building mental models and connections between ideas

• Practicing retrieval and application of knowledge

Alternative approaches:

• Focus on learning strategies that work for all learners

• Adapt teaching methods to the content, not individual preferences

• Encourage students to develop a range of learning skills

Whatever the field, expert performance is thought to be garnered through the slow acquisition of a larger number of increasingly complex patterns, patterns that are used to store knowledge about which actions to take in a vast vocabulary of different situations.

Deliberate practice. Achieving expertise requires focused, effortful practice aimed at improving specific aspects of performance. This involves:

• Setting clear goals

• Obtaining immediate feedback

• Constantly pushing beyond comfort zones

Growth mindset. Believing that abilities can be developed through effort and practice leads to greater resilience and achievement. This contrasts with a fixed mindset, which sees abilities as innate and unchangeable.

Developing expertise:

• Break down complex skills into component parts

• Practice with increasing difficulty and complexity

• Seek feedback and adjust accordingly

• Embrace challenges and learn from failures

The techniques for highly effective learning that are outlined in this book can be put to use right now everywhere learners, teachers, and trainers are at work.

Classroom applications:

• Incorporate frequent low-stakes quizzing

• Use cumulative testing to reinforce past material

• Encourage students to generate explanations

• Provide opportunities for spaced and interleaved practice

Workplace training:

• Implement simulation-based learning

• Use scenario-based assessments

• Encourage reflection and peer teaching

• Design training programs with spaced repetition

Self-directed learning:

• Develop a habit of self-quizzing

• Create a spaced repetition schedule

• Seek out challenges and novel applications of knowledge

• Regularly reflect on learning experiences and adjust strategies

By applying these evidence-based techniques across various learning environments, individuals and organizations can significantly improve the effectiveness and durability of learning outcomes.