Why People Believe Weird Things

Skepticism is a provisional approach to claims. Skepticism is a method, not a position.

Defining skepticism. Contrary to popular belief, skepticism is not about cynicism or automatic rejection of new ideas. It is a systematic approach to evaluating claims based on evidence and logical reasoning. Skeptics aim to maintain an open mind while requiring extraordinary evidence for extraordinary claims. They apply critical thinking tools like considering alternative explanations, looking for corroborating evidence, and examining the reliability of sources.

Applying skepticism. The skeptical method can be applied to any claim, from the paranormal to mainstream science. Key aspects include:

• Asking for evidence

• Considering the plausibility of claims

• Checking for logical fallacies

• Seeking expert consensus

• Being willing to change one's mind with new evidence

Science is not the affirmation of a set of beliefs but a process of inquiry aimed at building a testable body of knowledge constantly open to rejection or confirmation.

The scientific method. Science advances through a process of forming hypotheses, testing them against evidence, and refining or rejecting theories based on results. This self-correcting nature distinguishes science from dogma. Scientists actively try to disprove their own ideas and those of others. Theories that withstand rigorous testing and explain a wide range of observations become accepted, but remain open to future revision.

Convergence of evidence. Strong scientific theories are supported by multiple, independent lines of evidence that all point to the same conclusion. For example, evolution is supported by:

• Fossil record

• Comparative anatomy

• Genetics

• Biogeography

• Direct observation of evolution in action

This convergence makes theories robust, as it is highly unlikely that multiple lines of evidence would all support a false conclusion.

Pseudoscience is presented so that it appears scientific even though it lacks supporting evidence and plausibility.

Common tactics. Pseudoscience often mimics the trappings of real science while lacking its substance. Key characteristics include:

• Cherry-picking evidence

• Making unfalsifiable claims

• Invoking conspiracy theories to explain lack of acceptance

• Using scientific-sounding jargon inappropriately

• Failing to follow the scientific method

Cognitive biases. Pseudoscience exploits natural human cognitive biases, such as:

• Confirmation bias: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs

• Pattern recognition: Seeing meaningful patterns in random data

• Anchoring: Relying too heavily on one piece of information

• Appeal to nature: Assuming natural things are inherently good

• Authority bias: Trusting claims from perceived authorities

Understanding these biases and fallacies can help individuals become more resistant to pseudoscientific claims.

How do we know the Holocaust happened? The same general method that scientists in such historical fields as archeology or paleontology use—through what William Whewell called a "consilience of inductions," or a convergence of evidence.

Convergence of evidence. The Holocaust is one of the most well-documented events in history, supported by multiple lines of evidence:

• Written documents (orders, memos, blueprints)

• Eyewitness testimony (survivors, liberators, perpetrators)

• Physical evidence (camps, gas chambers, mass graves)

• Demographic data

• Nazi confessions

Denial tactics. Holocaust deniers use various techniques to sow doubt:

• Cherry-picking and misrepresenting evidence

• Exploiting minor discrepancies to dismiss all evidence

• Presenting false dichotomies (e.g., either 6 million or none)

• Shifting the burden of proof

• Conspiracy theories to explain the "hoax"

Understanding how deniers distort history provides valuable lessons in critical thinking and the importance of evaluating claims based on the totality of evidence.

As skeptics and critical thinkers, we must move beyond our emotional responses because by understanding how others have gone wrong and how science is subject to social control and cultural influences, we can improve our understanding of how the world works.

Key critical thinking skills. Developing these skills can help individuals evaluate claims more effectively:

• Logical reasoning

• Recognizing cognitive biases

• Understanding the scientific method

• Evaluating sources and evidence

• Considering alternative explanations

Application to everyday life. Critical thinking isn't just for academic settings. It's valuable for:

• Making informed decisions

• Evaluating media claims

• Understanding political and social issues

• Avoiding scams and misinformation

• Personal growth and learning

Cultivating these skills requires practice and a willingness to challenge one's own beliefs and assumptions.

Hope springs eternal in the human breast; Man never Is, but always To be blest.

Emotional appeal. Many pseudoscientific and paranormal beliefs offer comfort, meaning, or a sense of control in an uncertain world. People are drawn to ideas that:

• Promise easy solutions to complex problems

• Offer a sense of specialness or hidden knowledge

• Provide explanations for mysterious events

• Align with existing worldviews or desires

Coping mechanism. Belief in pseudoscience or the paranormal can serve as a coping mechanism for:

• Dealing with loss or grief

• Facing uncertainty or lack of control

• Seeking meaning or purpose

• Addressing existential fears

Understanding this emotional dimension is crucial for effectively addressing and countering irrational beliefs.

Smart people believe weird things because they are skilled at defending beliefs they arrived at for non-smart reasons.

Intelligent irrationality. High intelligence can sometimes make individuals more susceptible to certain types of irrational beliefs:

• Better ability to rationalize and defend beliefs

• Overconfidence in one's own reasoning abilities

• Skill at finding patterns (even where none exist)

• Greater exposure to complex ideas that may include fringe beliefs

Examples of smart believers. History provides numerous examples of brilliant individuals holding irrational beliefs:

• Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of Sherlock Holmes) believed in fairies

• William Shockley (Nobel Prize-winning physicist) promoted eugenics

• Linus Pauling (Nobel laureate) advocated megadoses of vitamin C

This demonstrates that critical thinking skills must be actively cultivated, even by highly intelligent individuals.

Most of us most of the time come to our beliefs for a variety of reasons having little to do with empirical evidence and logical reasoning.

Belief formation. Our beliefs are shaped by a complex interplay of factors:

• Genetic predispositions

• Early childhood experiences

• Cultural and social influences

• Emotional needs and desires

• Personal experiences and traumas

• Education and exposure to ideas

Belief maintenance. Once formed, beliefs are maintained through various psychological mechanisms:

• Confirmation bias: Seeking information that supports existing beliefs

• Cognitive dissonance: Discomfort when holding conflicting beliefs

• Backfire effect: Strengthening beliefs when presented with contradictory evidence

• Social reinforcement: Surrounding oneself with like-minded individuals

Understanding these psychological processes can help individuals become more aware of their own biases and more open to changing their minds when presented with new evidence.